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Georg Scheuer, biography

Publié le 2 Janvier 2025 par PB Pantopolis

SCHEUER (Georg), known as ROTER HANSL, ARMAND, GASTON BRINON, GEORGES LAGRANGE, JACQUES HUBERT, MARTIN BUCHER, journalist. Georg Scheuer was born on 8 December 1915 in Vienna (Austria), the son of : Heinrich Scheuer (1885-1942), of Moravian Jewish origin, editor at the Vienna press agency, and Alice Leimdörfer (1889-1942), Hungarian-Swabian from Temesvár (Timişoara), Banat. Her parents were above all «pantheists», pacifists and social democrats.

G. Scheuer joined the Association of Socialist Schoolchildren [Verband Sozialistischer Mittelschüler (VSM)] and the Socialist Workers’ Youth [Sozialistische Arbeiterjugend (SAJ)] at a very early age. In 1930, he was group leader of the Red Falcons (Rote Falken), a Social Democrat group founded in 1925 and made up of «red» children aged between 12 and 14. He met Otto Bauer (1881-1938), Max Adler (1873-1937) and Wilhelm Reich (1897-1957) - whose lessons on the sexual freedom of young people he took on board - who came to give talks.

But disagreeing with the softness of «Austromarxism» in the face of the rise of fascism, he joined the Young Communists (Kommunistischer Jugendverband) in 1931. He immediately became involved in relentless political activity, working day and night, much to the concern of his parents. A delegate for the RMV (Revolutionary Association of Schoolchildren), he left for Berlin at Christmas of the same year, his first international trip. He was greeted by a KPD militant who greeted him not with the traditional «Rotfront» (Red Front), but with an astonishing «Heil Moskau». At a mass meeting of the KPD, the speaker reassured them: «The very day Hitler is due to enter government, the battalions of the Red Army will be at the German border». When he left the station, his German comrades reassured him again: «When you come back, you’ll already see us in power!

After the uprising of February 1934, in which he took part in Vienna, mainly with «proletarians without a party», Georg firmly opposed his parents, in particular his father, who burnt all «compromising» social-democratic literature after the workers’ uprising was crushed. His father even made a show of it by writing a pamphlet in which the new and «venerable» Chancellor Schuschnigg (1897-1977), who succeeded Dolfuss (1892-1934) who had been murdered by the Nazis, led «Austria to a new awakening and a new faith in its future», while the «honourable» Chancellor pursued a policy of rapprochement with Nazi Germany.

The joint collapse of the SPD and KPD without a fight in February 1933, followed by that of Austrian social democracy in February 1934, prompted him to reorientate himself: he read Lenin’s works in his library and gradually turned towards «Bolshevism-Leninism». During a trip to Italy in the summer of 1934, he was surprised to see an Italian translation of Trotsky’s Life in bookshops. In 1935, together with several groups of young people in the Young Communists and the Austrian Communist Party, he took part in the formation of an underground Trotskyist faction, which soon developed into an autonomous organisation under the name Revolutionäre Kommunisten Österreichs (Austrian Revolutionary Communists). Together with his friend Karl Fischer (1918-1936), known as Kegel («the keel»), and Fischer’s mother (Maria), he was the driving force behind it.

The RKÖ published their illegal organ Bolschewik in February 1936, edited by himself, Karl Fischer, Franz Lederer (1915-1941) and Joseph Hindels (1916-1990). The title he proposed, Spartakus, in homage to Rosa Luxemburg, was not accepted. The RKÖs then formed the «Movement for the Fourth International», in association with one of Trotsky’s secretaries, the Czech Jan Frankel (1906-1984). This «Fourth International» was represented by the Kampfbund, a group formed by Josef Frey (1889-1957), an old hand in the opposition to the Austrian Communist Party, who regarded the RK as «provocateurs in the pay of the Stalinists».

In November 1936, Georg Scheuer was arrested at his family home by the police, who could find no organisational documents. On the tip-off of informers, he was interrogated by the police. Ill-treated and called a «red dog» by the police, he was imprisoned for 9 months before being brought, along with Karl Fischer and two other comrades, before a court in August 1937 for «high treason». At the end of this trial, described by the Viennese press as the «Trotzkistenprozess in Wien» (an obvious allusion to the Moscow trials), G. Scheuer rejected the allegation of «high treason»: «We are Marxists, not putschists... we Austrian Trotskyists aspire to restore pure Marxist theory and the old workers’ organisations».

At the end of the «Vienna Trial», he was sentenced to 18 months in prison, while his friend Karl Fischer was sentenced to 14 months because he was younger. However, in September 1937, the Supreme Court of Justice appealed, and both were sentenced to five years in prison, until October 1941. It was the threat of Anschluss, after a stormy meeting with Hitler in Berchtesgaden, that prompted Chancellor Schuschnigg, on 17 February 1938, to grant amnesty to all «political prisoners», first the «Fazis» (Austrian Nazis) and then all the others. Once released, G. Scheuer and Kegel were aware of the threat: Schuschnigg had appointed the Nazi leader Seyss-Inquart (1892-1946) as Minister of Police. G. Scheuer was miraculously able to cross the Czech border on 11 March 1938, in a complete power vacuum, at the very moment of the Anschluss. Just in time, because a few months later his father was dismissed, his parents expropriated from their home and eventually sent to the ghetto.

He took refuge with his Moravian uncle and met up with some of his comrades, such as Josef Hindels (1916-1990), who later represented the RK (Revolutionary Communists) in Norway. The nationalism that exploded in all strata of Czech and Slovak society, the Sudeten German minority won over to Nazism, and which targeted refugees, prompted him to flee quickly. He obtained a visa for Switzerland and flew from Basel to Strasbourg, just as Rudolf Klement (1908-July 1938), the head of the Trotskyist International Secretariat, had been assassinated by the GPU.

The break with official Trotskyism came with the proclamation of the Fourth International at Périgny (Val-de-Marne) on 3 September 1938, at Alfred Rosmer’s house and in the presence of Marc Zborowski (Étienne), Stalin’s spy. Speaking out against this artificial proclamation, G. Scheuer and K. Fischer were violently challenged by the American Trotskyist leader Max Shachtman (1904-1972), who cut short any further speeches: «You are ultra-leftists! This «term, thrown around the meeting like a revelation, is synonymous with anathema», Scheuer was to note in his Memoirs.

With Karl Fischer and the agreement of the militants, Georg Scheuer renamed his group RKD (Revolutionäre Kommunisten Deutschlands) and broke with Trotskyism. At the time of the war, he had already been deeply shaken by Ante Ciliga’s testimony (Au Pays du grand mensonge, 1938), and spoke out against the unconditional defence of a USSR defined as state capitalism. The RKD came into contact with dissident Trotskyists: the Revolutionary Workers League of the American Hugo Oehler (1903-1983) and the Belgian group «Contre le courant» of Georges Vereeken (1896-1978).

With the outbreak of war, like all German and Austrian refugees fleeing fascism, he was considered a potential «fifth columnist». He was interned at the Milles camp, near Aix-en-Provence, with another RK leader, Gustav Gronich (6 April 1916-2003), known as Max, who had already been interned at the Dachau camp in 1938. There he rubbed shoulders with artists Max Ernst and Hans Bellmer, writers Golo Mann and Lion Feuchtwanger, and SPD leaders Rudolf Hilferding (1877-1941) and Rudolf Breitscheid (1874-1944), who were later handed over to the Gestapo by Vichy. In the spring of 1940, he was left with no choice but to wear the «prestataire» (auxiliary) uniform, a blue-horizon uniform dating from the First World War. He took advantage of the debacle to go to Clermont-Ferrand, «on leave», to see Melanie Berger, who was working as a secretary for a French lawyer.

Back at the Milles camp, he tried to escape with Gustav Gronich, but both were caught by the gendarmes. Despite the threat of their rifles, he replied: «You can shoot, but it’s you who are in the service of the ‘Krauts’, it’s you who have come to take us and hand us over to Hitler». He was grazed by a gendarme’s bullet. Taken back to the camp, he was deported by train to the south, where he took advantage of a loophole in surveillance to escape to Bayonne and the new «Free Zone». In Toulouse, he met German Stalinists, former members of the Brigades, whose motto, inspired by Moscow, was now «heim ins Reich! (Return to the Reich!), the slogan used by Hitler at the time of the Annexation of Austria in 1938.

G. Scheuer renewed contact with his comrades [Gustav Gronich, Lotte Israel (1920-1980), Edith Kramer (1921-?), Karl Fischer] and settled in Montauban with Melanie Berger. He and his comrades soon had to scatter, from Lyon to Marseille and Grenoble, to escape the Vichy raids.

His political work was the most intense of his life, that of «another resistance», purely internationalist, which he carried out as a true «professional revolutionary». He tirelessly wrote thousands of pages to prepare the cadres of the «new communist-internationalist party». He established countless contacts with the Trotskyist milieu, starting with «The Only Way», led by Rudolf Prager (Rudi) [forerunner of the ICC (Internationalist Communist Committee)], who replied that he «had come to the wrong place». The work was more productive with younger elements, leading to splits and a rallying to the RKD.

As early as 1942, this work led to the formation of groups of «Revolutionary Communists» who, from 1943 onwards, defended the positions of the RKD in the agitation sheet «Proletarian Fraternisation». The Organisation of Revolutionary Communists (OCR) was soon formed in October 1944 and published Marxisme (replaced by Communisme in March 1945) jointly or separately with the RKD. The OCR had up to forty militants, particularly in the south-west (Toulouse, Montauban, Bordeaux). The C.R. and RKD groups were autonomous, compartmentalised by clandestinity, with their own positions, although essentially identical; they had their own organ: the Toulouse CR published «le Prolétaire» in 1944-1945; the Paris CR published «Pouvoir ouvrier» in 1944.

The RK’s German-language press (RK-Bulletin from 1941, Spartakus from 1943 to 1945, Vierte kommunistische Internationale), in its rejection of the defence of the USSR and Stalinist state capitalism, showed a real rapprochement with the internationalist positions of the Bordigist Italian Fraction. Initially an ultra-Bolshevik, to the point of taking Lenin’s every position as gospel, his break with Trotskyism had also seen him move towards Luxemburgist positions, rejecting any support for «national liberation struggles». Under the influence of G. Scheuer, the German-language agitation leaflet took on the title Spartakus, adopting positions close to those of the council communists by denouncing the repression at Kronstadt: «Soviet democracy (council democracy) means full democratic freedoms for all council parties taking the field of workers’ power» (Programmatic Platform, 1941, point II).

G. Scheuer, like his comrades, carried out intense agitation work aimed at the German army for «world revolution and the republic of councils in Germany and throughout the world», and the foundation of a «4th Communist International». They called on soldiers to mutiny, shoot their officers and form workers’ and soldiers’ councils when they returned home. The RKD did not hesitate to carry out high-risk actions. Throwing leaflets in German into German barracks, on transport used by German soldiers, and even in the street from hand to hand.

The Italian events of March 1943 and the fall of Mussolini appeared to Scheuer and his comrades to be the promise of a revolutionary dawn: «In Germany, America and Russia, class struggles, strikes and mutinies are breaking out: the workers are preparing the revolution against their exploiters» (Spartakus, June 1944). In Grenoble, in the Italian zone, Karl Fischer distributed leaflets in Italian to very friendly soldiers.

It was with the Italian Bordigist Fraction in France and its French nucleus (Suzanne Voute and Marc Chirik) that the most intense discussions took place, in Marseille and Paris, and sometimes joint work in the form of anti-war leaflets. Bordiga’s theses on the party and Bordigist literature fascinated Georg Scheuer, who kept extensive archives on the Bordigist movement during the war.

G. Scheuer was also very active in the social struggles of the Parisian workers, who were trying to create structures outside the new trade union framework, which was mainly Stalinist. At the time of the liberation of Paris, the CR had a very active member in Raymond Hirzel - for a few days chairman of a factory committee at Renault-Billancourt from 21 to 24 August 1944. Together with the RCs, he carried out propaganda for the development of «revolutionary factory committees» in the Paris region, both in the Berliet factories and among book and press workers.

G. Scheuer had miraculously survived the period of occupation. A seasoned activist and an artist of conspiracy, he relied heavily on the «baraka» of the activist, instinctively eluding his Nazi and Vichy pursuers. His false identity papers were in the name of Lagrange, Georges, a musician, a literal translation of his first and last names. A certain sense of chivalrous action led him to organise an extremely risky operation to free his companion Melanie Berger (Anna), a member of the RK. She had been arrested in Montauban on 26 January 1942, and sentenced by a military tribunal in Toulouse on 18 December 1942 to fifteen years’ hard labour and a twenty-year ban on residence (sic), «for communist and anarchist activities». Imprisoned in the Baumettes prison in Marseille, she was suddenly admitted to hospital with jaundice. With a German soldier, ready to desert, and three comrades (Lotte Israël, Gustav Gronich and Ignaz Duhl), he organised a commando. Dressed in stolen SS uniforms and armed with false transfer orders, they succeeded in kidnapping her on 15 October 1943 and taking her to safety.

The RKD group emerged from the war having paid a high price for its internationalist activities. Franz Lederer (Dieter) died of exhaustion at the age of 26, while Ignaz Duhl - recognised in the street by a former classmate in uniform - was arrested, tortured and shot by the Gestapo in 1944 in Marseille. Arthur Streicher (Fred) [1917-1943] had been arrested in 1942 at the demarcation line: he disappeared in an extermination camp in 1943. A leading activist, Edith Kramer (Renée) [1921-?], responsible for the group’s printing works and propaganda work among German soldiers, was arrested in autumn 1943 by the Gestapo in Valence. Sentenced to death in Lyon by a special court, she was freed at the last minute by a group of resistance fighters. Karl Fischer (Émile Berger) had been arrested in November 1943 under his false «Alsatian» name, imprisoned in Fresnes as a «deserter» and sent to the Buchenwald camp. Prey to the vindictiveness of the Stalinists who wanted to liquidate him, he was freed by the American army, only to co-write with Marcel Baufrère and others the famous Buchenwald Declaration of Internationalist Communists (20 May 1945). He was then able to return to Austria to reanimate the remains of the surviving RKD militants.

At the end of the war, Georg Scheuer persevered in a revolutionary activity that had become less clandestine. Very disappointed by the attitude of the Italian communist left towards the Brussels anti-fascist committee, led by Ottorino Perrone, he made fierce denunciations of «Bordigist opportunism» in the French newspaper Le Prolétaire, a continuation of Fraternisation prolétarienne, and called for «the formation of communist-revolutionary groups, the seeds of the future new party of the proletariat». When the Italian Left split in France in the spring of 1945, he openly sided with Marc Chirik’s group against Suzanne Voute’s, whose fiery personality he found too «hysterical».

Disoriented by the many micro-scissions in the CR and RKD ranks, dismayed by the absence of a revolutionary wave in Europe, the perpetuation of Stalinism and the absence of the hoped-for «new Bolshevik party», he withdrew for several months to a mountain retreat. His evolution gradually led him to the libertarian movement, but he maintained contacts with Ante Ciliga, living in Rome, and Henk Canne-Meijer, a Dutch theorist of council communism. He was one of the founders of the German journal Freie Sozialistische Blätter, Zurich-Amsterdam, to which he contributed from 1947. He was also a contributor to the journal Spartakus, published in Zurich. It was in this magazine that he reported on the abduction of his friend Karl Fischer by the NKVD in Linz on 21 January 1947. He took part in the international conference of contacts between revolutionary groups held in Brussels at Whitsun 1947, always seeking to compare ideas with the internationalist milieu.

After 1946, he stayed in France to work in Paris as an editor at AFP and as a correspondent for German, Swiss and Austrian newspapers, including Vienna’s Arbeiter-Zeitung.

His informal links with the Parisian libertarian milieu led him to contribute to the newspaper Le Libertaire, giving book reviews under the pseudonym of Martin Bucher. But this never made him an anarchist. When «Socialisme ou Barbarie» was founded, he made contact with Castoriadis, but did not join his group. He also maintained contact with the Grandizo Munis group.

G. Scheuer remained fascinated by the Russian Revolution, writing two books (1957 and 1967) on the process of its degeneration. He passionately followed the events of May 1968, which he saw as «the first breath of fresh air in Europe» after the long night of counter-revolution. He continued to write about what he saw as the beginning of new proletarian hopes: «May ‘68 creeping up» in Italy and the «Carnation Revolution» in Portugal.

He always refused to define himself as an «anti-fascist resistance fighter», making it clear that this was «another resistance», because it was internationalist, unlike his former comrade Melanie Berger, whom he rescued from the clutches of the Gestapo and married to a French resistance fighter from the MUR (Mouvements unis de la Résistance).

Georg Scheuer always remained a man who refused to compromise or compromise: he did not join the SPÖ, which he had fought against, as Karl Fischer did after 1946, for work reasons, before being kidnapped by the NKVD in Linz and sentenced by a special court to the Gulag until May 1955. He never went back like Josef Hindels (Karl Popper), a former RK leader in exile in Sweden, who became a Social Democrat trade union leader.

He was a frequent commentator on revolutionary history in Austria and Germany, as well as in France in the columns of Le Monde diplomatique. After May 1968, he constantly sought to forge links with young people in France and Austria who had broken with Trotskyism and its concept of a «degenerate workers’ state».

In particular, he supported the efforts of the young Viennese internationalist group «Kommunistische Politik», which had been publishing the review Kommunismus since 1977, and was in international contact with the «Lega leninista» in Savona, led by Corrado Basile, which published Falcemartello.

In an (anonymous) interview on the eve of the conflict in Afghanistan, G. Scheuer maintained intact his passionate hope in an international revolution, despite the danger of generalised imperialist conflicts: «In this period of low tide of the revolutionary movement, the danger of a third world war is back on the agenda... This does not mean that the third imperialist war is ‘inevitable’: important class struggles can rise up to an outbreak of social revolutions and prevent a new imperialist massacre. We must neither underestimate nor overestimate these possibilities. In all circumstances, we must continue in all countries the struggle for proletarian revolution and counter imperialist war preparations, preparing ourselves, in the event that «however» imperialist war should break out, to transform it - in the spirit of revolutionary defeatism - into a world proletarian revolution».

G. Scheuer spent the last years of his life in Vienna with his wife Christa Scheuer-Weyl (1941-2006), a Munich-born journalist, critic and translator. He took advantage of his final retirement in Vienna to write the first part of his memoirs, up to 1945 (Nur Narren fürchten nichts, 1991) and his political assessment of revolutionary Russia from 1917 to the Stalinist counter-revolution (Vorwärts und schnell vergessen?, 1992). In this book, devoted to the assessment of a century lived between dream and trauma, he gave his political testament, that of a lucid hope, far from the illusion of hopes nourished by the disappearance of the Soviet Empire and German reunification, or of a «class struggle [of the damned of the earth] in the new form of a gigantic North-South confrontation», whose «outcome is uncertain»: «The alternative posed in the past [socialism or barbarism], with the addition of the global ecological catastrophe, is more pressing than ever: the realisation of the hope for humanity proclaimed at the turn of the last century, or a fall into bloody chaos. There is no such thing as the ‘end of history’. Perhaps the end of a barbaric prehistory».

Georg Scheuer, who died in Vienna on 15 September 1996, is buried in Vienna’s Central Cemetery (Zentralfriedhof), with the epitaph: «We live on a volcano, and you must plant your rose garden there», an aphorism he borrowed from Jan Frankel.

G. Scheuer’s parents, Heinrich and Alice, had been deported on 20 May 1942 to Maly Trostinec (Belarus); they were immediately murdered on arrival. In this village, 12 km south-east of Minsk, between 40,000 and 60,000 people were exterminated, most of them Jews or suspected ‘Judeo-Bolsheviks’, between May 1942 and June 1944. Since 2009, a courtyard at 39 Neulinggasse in Vienna has been named after them.

The archives of G. Scheuer, deposited at the Institute of Social History in Amsterdam (IISG), are a first-rate source for a precise study of dissident and Bordigist Trotskyist organisations during and in the aftermath of the war.

Ph. Bourrinet.

(Notice extracted from: A CENTURY OF «ITALIAN» COMMUNIST LEFT (1915-2015) https://www.left-dis.nl/f/DictionnaireGCI.pdf), Paris, 1 May 2017, Éditions moto proprio (我的摩托车出版社).

Books: Von Lenin bis ...? Die Geschichte einer Konterrevolution, Verlag nach Dietz, Berlin, 1957. - Marianne auf dem Schafott. Frankreich zwischen gestern und morgen, Europa Verlag, Vienna, 1966. - Oktober 1917. Die russische Revolution, J. H. W. Dietz Nachf., Hanover, 1967. - Genosse Mussolini? Wurzeln und Wege des Ur-Fascismus. Geschichte 1915-1945, Verlag für Gesellschaftskritik, Vienna, 1985. - Nur Narren fürchten nichts. Szenen aus dem Dreissigjährigen Krieg 1915 - 1945. Autobiographie 1915-1945, Verlag für Gesellschaftskritik, Vienna, 1991. - Vorwärts - und schnell vergessen? Jahrhundert zwischen Traum und Trauma, Picus-Verlag, Vienna, 1992. - Mussolinis langer Schatten. Marsch auf Rom im Nadelstreif. Geschichte 1946-1996, Neuer ISP-Verlag, Cologne, 1996. - Seuls les fous n’ont pas peur, Syllepse, translated by Geneviève Hess and Christa Scheuer-Weyl, Paris, 2002.

Sources: Georg Scheuer Collection, International Institute of Social History (IISG), Amsterdam: http://search.socialhistory.org/Record/ARCH01249/ArchiveContentList#Ab8ec6ebe30. - RKD documents in French: http://archivesautonomies.org/spip.php?rubrique472. - RKD-CR (1940-1947), documents and journal summaries (French and German): http://archivesautonomies.org/spip.php?rubrique472. - Various meetings with G. Scheuer (1978-1993). - Die Führer der Wiener Trotskisten verurteilt», Das Kleine Blatt, Vienna, 14 August 1937. - Ten Years of R.K.», RKD-Bulletin, Sept. 1945. - (anonymous), «Die internationale Versammlung in Brüssel, Pfingsten 1947», Spartakus, no. 1, Zurich, October 1947. - Bibliographie des documents R.K.-C.R. («ultra-gauche»), 1938-1939, Les Cahiers du C.E.R.M.T.R.I., No. 10 [1979]. - 1939-1945, Les Cahiers du C.E.R.M.T.R.I., no. 11 [1979]. - Fritz Keller, «Le trotskysme en Autriche de 1934 à 1945», in Cahiers Léon Trotsky no. 5, January 1980, pp. 115-133. - Philippe Bourrinet, La Gauche communiste italienne 1926-1945, master’s thesis, Paris-I Sorbonne, June 1980 [corrected and expanded edition, Zoetermer (Netherlands), 2000: http://www.left-dis.nl/f/bordiguism.pdf]. - Fritz Keller, Gegen den Strom. Fraktionskämpfe in der KPÖ-Trotzkisten und andere Gruppen 1919-1945, Europaverlag, Vienna, 1978. - Der Kampf gegen den imperialistischen Krieg am Beispiel der ‘Revolutionären Kommunisten’«, in Kommunismus, Internationes Bulletin der Gruppe Kommunistische Politik, no. 6/7, Vienna, May 1979. - Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes (ed.), Österreicher im Exil. Frankreich 1938-1945. Eine Dokumentation, Vienna, 1984. - Fritz Keller, In den Gulag von Ost und West. Karl Fischer Arbeiter und Revolutionär, ISP-Verlag, Frankfurt/Main, Sept. 1980 - Christine Schatz, Daniel Löcker, Matthias Flödl: Auf verlorenem Posten. Georg Scheuer im Gespräch Video-Film, Lehrveranstaltung Kommunikationswissenschaftliche Methodenlehre (Oral History) mit Manfred Bobrowsky, Vienna, 1992. - Pierre Lanneret, Les internationalistes du troisième camp, Mauléon, Acratie, 1995. - Georg Scheuer, «Der ‘andere’ Widerstand in Frankreich (1939-1945)», Archiv für die Geschichte des Widerstandes und der Arbeit, notebook no. 14, Bochum, Germinal, 1996, pp. 209-232; «Genosse Unbekannt: der junge Revolutionär Josef Hindels», Vienna, Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes, 1996, DÖW-Jahrbuch 1996, pp. 123-149. - Kurt Lhotzky, Who was Georg Scheuer, what was the Revolutionary Workers League? in Revolutionary History, vol. 7, no. 1, London, 1999. - François Langlet (ed.), «L’OCR & les RKD. Textes», CD-Rom, Tempus fugit No. 1, Marcoussis, May 2003. - Yves Jeanmougin et alii, Mémoire du camp des Milles 1939-1942, Éditions Le Bec en l’air, Marseille, 2013. - Filmed interview between Mélanie Berger (wife Volle) and historian Robert Mencherini, organised by MUREL and the Promemo Association, on 11 October 2013, at the Bouches-du-Rhône Departmental Archives: http://museedelaresistanceenligne.org/media5884-TA. - «Melanie Berger: Ich wollte die Welt verändern», Wiener Zeitung, 11 Nov. 2013. - Robert Mencherini (ed.), Étrangers antifascistes à Marseille 1940-1944, Éditions Gaussen, Marseille, March 2014.

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